Gender Roles Essay - 842 Words

Gender Roles While I was growing up, gender roles were highly defined by my parents and teachers as well as all other societal influences. Boys were taught to do boy things and girls were taught to do girly things. The toys that children play with and the activities that are encouraged by adults demonstrate the influence of gender roles on todays youth. In my formative years, the masculine traits that I learned came out because of the activities that my parents had me engage in and the things that they expected from me. The expectations that my parents held for my sister, on the other hand, varied from those that they had for me, and this was made apparent through the different activities that occupied her time. My†¦show more content†¦My sister would jump rope or hullahoop. I remember when my sister wanted to skateboard because I was doing it and my parents would not let her because they said she would get hurt. My mother would cook with my sister, but never with me. My dad would take me to basketball and soccer games. When you?re young enough that your parents still make all of your fashion decisions, they dress you according to gender roles. I would never wear colors like pink or orange. I wore blue, black, and green. Little girls? clothes had flowers and ladybugs on them. My mother used to care what my sister left the house wearing, while it made no difference to her what I had on. When I was ten years old, I specifically remember a few double standards that existed. I was allowed to call girls, but my sister was not allowed to call boys. This one lasted until the end of high school. I was allowed to stay out later than she was, too. There was no place, where gender roles were more prevalent than in sports while I was growing up. Coaches, parents, and peers had a large influence in this context. Coaches have a tremendous influence on kids, and gender roles are driven into young athletes? heads. There were always those girls who would play like boys and they were referred to as ?tomboys.? The girls who did not conform to the gender roles were looked at negatively. Boys who did not play hard or weren?t good athletes were calledShow MoreRelatedGender, Masculinity, And Gender Roles1380 Words   |  6 Pagesenvironment, but is instead, viewed from the perspective of women themselves. They are not observed from outside in, but from the inside out. At the same time, Danzon reverses and thus subverts the classic representations of gender, while relocating and challenging gender roles. Unlike the common representation of women in former Mexican cinema, femininity is not defined as being an opposition to masculinity in the film. In fact, men almost rarely appear. When they do appear, they appear as constructedRead MoreThe Role Of Socialization And Gender Roles852 Words   |  4 PagesINTRODUCTIOn tell me what you are focussing on†¦..family and theirgender roles Socialisation is the process by which a child learns to respect his or her environmental laws such as norms, values and customs. Socialisation helps the infant gradually become self-aware and a knowledgeable person, skilled in the ways of the culture into which he or she is born. Children within the primary socialisation of the family learn a great deal from parents and other care givers such as grandparents, grandmothersRead MoreGender Roles And Gender Role844 Words   |  4 PagesGender Roles can be defined as roles society expects people to play on account of their sex life. Like all roles, gender roles are made up of sets of expectations, so they can be thought of as sets of expirations, so they can be thought of as sets of expectation that are attached to sex.(pp: 220 John E. Farley Michael W. Flota). The key word gender role affects me personally because as recent graduate of high school it’s time for me to go into the real world, of working class gender role of theRead MoreGender Roles And Gender Role Essay784 Words   |  4 Pagessession, I will discuss the gender roles in my family. The definition of gender role is the degree to which a person adopts the gender-specific behaviors ascribed by his or her culture (Matsumoto, D. R., Juang 2013, 156). For example, traditional gender roles recommend that males are aggressive, angry, and unemotional. It goes further and explains that the male should leave the home every day to make a living and be the main wage earner. The traditional gender role for the female purpose is toRead MoreGender Roles And Gender Role Essay1385 Words   |  6 PagesOF SUBMISSION Gender roles Introduction Gender is set of characteristics that may be used to differentiate between female and male through the use of one’s gender or through gender identity therefore. Gender role can be considered as the hypothetical construct in humanities and in many social sciences referring to a set of behavioral and social norms which in a particular culture may be largely regarded to be socially appropriate for individuals of a particular sex, gender roles vary from variousRead MoreThe Shift Of Gender Roles940 Words   |  4 PagesThe Shift of Gender Roles Gender roles are a major component of many wonderful pieces of literature and differ as time passes. The amazing part about reading novels set in different time periods is that as readers we can see the progression of these gender roles throughout time. Willa Cather s novel One of Ours displays both traditional and non-traditional gender roles. These gender roles are displayed through the main characters Claude and Enid, and minor characters such as Leonard Dawson andRead MoreThe Influence Of Gender Roles1404 Words   |  6 Pages The Influence of Gender Role Stereotyping Shawn Berkley Santa Fe College Abstract Study on gender role stereotypes has shown that there are several negative effects of stereotyping. The study on how gender role stereotyping effects children is not as prevalent because most believe that it doesn’t matter, since children are just forming their stereotype so children do not care. However, some psychologists have done some research on it, and from their researchRead MoreGender Roles in Society1047 Words   |  4 PagesBroadly conceptualized, gender roles are what our society expects and values in their community. They shape our behavior and values, thoughts and feelings, even going so far as to denote a person’s worth. Gender roles are present in everyday situations. In the past they strictly dictated the behavior of people in the community (the right to vote, occupations women were allowed to work in), though in the recent past have become more subtle and more successfully challenged. In some instances they areRead MoreThe Gender Roles Of A Woman975 Wo rds   |  4 Pagesshe is immediately outcasted and seen as a problem instead of embraced. Anowa, who is the young lady protagonist in Ama Ata Aidoo’s short story, â€Å"Anowa†, does just that. She challenges the gender roles in many ways throughout the story in order to push back against the idea that all women should accept the role as the passive bystander to her male counterpart that society and traditions have predetermined for her, she ultimately expects more out of her life than just living her mother’s life. RegardlessRead More Gender Roles Essay864 Words   |  4 PagesGender Roles The affects of gender roles on people greatly change the way the society runs. According to the Websters dictionary the definition of gender are the behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits typically associated with one sex, and the definition of role is a character assigned or assumed. The key word in this definition is assumed; therefore, whether you are male or female, you know what role you must play in society. Traditional gender roles are beneficial

Discussion And Conclusion On Education - 893 Words

Discussion and Conclusion From the shared experience of participants, I got the notion that if it was parents’ will to let not their children in school, they would willingly be happy to let them home without education. The challenge is that apart from poverty, parents do not see the value of education. The high cost of education, poverty, and lack of employment after graduation force parents to make claims and false decisions on the fate of education for their children. This view of education forces me to insist what I stated previously in this dissertation a holistic mode of education have to empower graduates to live and manage their life whether they have employment or not. This lack of motivation and value of education among parents make me think is the reason for parents in rural areas reluctant to demand a better education for their children. I realized there is a problem, but they see it as a normal part of life. Hence, parents try whatever means they can, even if it is cheating to keep their children out of school. Parents and children need to visualize themselves the value of education, and seek it. Making it a law for each child, doesn’t help. It reminded me what I saw, when I was on my way from Musoma to Serengeti. I saw students from one of the schools carrying heavy loads of white bags on their heads in groups walking to school. It was class time. Each morning where I stayed, I could see children with buckets of water on their heads, fire woods, hoes,Show MoreRelatedSexuality And Its Effect On Adolescent Life1601 Words   |  7 Pagesunwanted pregnancy (3). Therefore a comprehensive collaboration through sexuality education program in school and parent’s role in the family are essential to ensure young adolescent get enough and appropriate information to help them making a sound decision in the future. B. Critical Appraisal 1. 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A willing and eagerRead MoreImplications for Today’s Online Educators Essay1339 Words   |  6 Pagesvarious factors include variables of interest that pertain to particular successes and barriers in which web-based instructors have encountered. For purposes of this research, online and web-based instruction (instructors) will refer only to higher education environments provided through universities and colleges. The underlying problem presented in this research concerns the need to implement research that describes the â€Å"relevance, effectiveness, restrictive and facilitative dimensions of online courses†Read MorePatient Education Sessions Influences Levels Of Satisfaction862 Words   |  4 Pageshelp them deal with the treatment. Education sessions and preparation that cancer patients get prior to radiation treatment or CT simulation may influence their satisfaction. 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The teacher will typically use a variety of inquiry based learning tactics. This school of thought is used to develop each students’ individual abilities and moral character. The idealist feels that with the development of moral character in addition

With the examples of contemporary Western Art, as Essay Example For Students

With the examples of contemporary Western Art, as Essay opposed to the period they are depicting, used in the lecture by Sand Kakuda there can be seen vast amounts of themes being played upon that are distinctly related to the Greco-Roman Era. Since these cultures are the primary beginnings of Western Civilization it is safe to say that their lifestyles, socially and politically, and works of art have served as a model and basis for art in cultures and generations to come. The legacy of the Greco-Roman culture can be seen in practically all of Western Art even up to the most contemporary works of today. The first two pieces called Le Dejeuner sur lHerbe, done in the 1980s, are used for comic purposes. However, one may ask why are they comedic and what was their influence? In the Greco-Roman culture nudity was accepted as something that showed the beauty of the human body, in both males and females. When looking at ancient art one can see that a vast majority of the models used are nude. To the Greeks and Romans the human body was a work of art. In contemporary times this is still the opinion. One can see works done today of nude models everywhere. The one main difference between more contemporary periods and the Greco-Roman period was that people wore transparent clothing or were practically nude in any situation, such as a picnic or a walk. In more contemporary times this behavior is not as accepted. The pieces shown in lecture were simply spoofing the behavior by interjecting modern environments and people. The humor is drawn from the awkwardness of the situati! on. More influence can be seen because the models are drawn in the same position as the Greeks and Romans had for models in their works of art. The actual work of art done by Manet in 1863 is influenced by the Greco-Roman legacy because it shows how these cultures viewed the body of the female. Manet uses many similar themes seen in Greco-Roman sculptures. He especially understood the view of the body these cultures had. For example the posing of the body, the smoothness of the lines, the silky texture of the skin, the physique of the woman, the hair color and the naturalistic setting all make clear what these cultures felt about the depiction of women. By understanding these concepts and using them so well, these paintings practically give the women god-like qualities. The next works seen were the Judgement of Paris(1520,Raimondi), the Fountain of Four Rivers(1648,Berini), and S. Maria Maggiore(430,Mosaic Detail). These works were influenced by the day to day activities of the aristocracy in the Greco-Roman cultures in peacetime. These cultures intensely enjoyed lounging around, eating, and drinking. This is shown in the paintings by the position of the body, as seen in sculptures. The figure is laid back on the ground or on a rock at a riverbank in an obviously relaxed position. They are usually by a body of water, which also signifies a relaxed atmosphere. The smooth lines used to draw the water and body give a relaxed feeling to the viewer of the art. These pieces also show the beauty of the human body. The figures are mostly men. They are perfectly shaped and toned to show the greatness of the culture. By doing this one can see that god-like attributes shown in the works which are representative of a perfect culture created by! beautiful gods. Even in contemporary times, leaders are shown in a relaxed state during peacetime, which depict the same principles as the Greco-Roman cultures did. The works entitled Gigantomacy, Treasury of the Siphnians, Delphi(525BCE,Greek Relief), Deidamia attacked by Centaurs, Temple of Zeus, Olympia(477BCE, Greek Relief), the Battle of Lapiths and Centaurs, Florence(1491, Michealangelo), and Athena Alcyoneus, Altar of Athena Zeus, Pergamum(180BCE,Greek Relief) all depict a fighting scenario. These works show scenes of war overflowing with battles, heroism, triumph, courage, bravery, loyalty and strength. The works are also created so that there is no space between figures in battle. .u186a6ea283a8d36e6b5798c441724571 , .u186a6ea283a8d36e6b5798c441724571 .postImageUrl , .u186a6ea283a8d36e6b5798c441724571 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u186a6ea283a8d36e6b5798c441724571 , .u186a6ea283a8d36e6b5798c441724571:hover , .u186a6ea283a8d36e6b5798c441724571:visited , .u186a6ea283a8d36e6b5798c441724571:active { border:0!important; } .u186a6ea283a8d36e6b5798c441724571 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u186a6ea283a8d36e6b5798c441724571 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u186a6ea283a8d36e6b5798c441724571:active , .u186a6ea283a8d36e6b5798c441724571:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u186a6ea283a8d36e6b5798c441724571 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u186a6ea283a8d36e6b5798c441724571 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u186a6ea283a8d36e6b5798c441724571 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u186a6ea283a8d36e6b5798c441724571 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u186a6ea283a8d36e6b5798c441724571:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u186a6ea283a8d36e6b5798c441724571 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u186a6ea283a8d36e6b5798c441724571 .u186a6ea283a8d36e6b5798c441724571-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u186a6ea283a8d36e6b5798c441724571:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Old is GOld Sample Essay This gives the viewer a feeling of extreme discomfort, confusion and chaos. With this at hand, the viewer gets an idea of what the Greco-Roman depiction of war was like. Many of the figures are shown with swords killing and trampling the enemy. They often have the leader of the battle in the front and sometimes on a horse. This type of depiction shows the greatness of the leaders and warriors. Usually influenced by gods they went into battle ! without fear or self-interest. They were very powerful men and highly revered by their cultures. Obviously, these ancient works have influenced contemporary art. One can see in almost any type of art depicting a battle, principles used that came from the Greco-Roman cultures. While modern, works depicting war still show the leader of the army up front and almost always on a horse and the groundmen selflessly and bravely going into battle, many to their utter demise. Also seen is the same mayhem by filling the space up with chaotic battling and dying men everywhere. The work entitled Camilla and the Centaur(1484,Botticelli) is a depiction of a woman with an axe petting a centaur. While the theme of beauty was played upon, other themes came into the picture. It shows a woman of compassion, yet at the same time a woman with power and strength. Botticelli perhaps admired these traits in a woman and so created a work of art from it. In his time and in more modern times this depiction of women is unfortunately not often seen, but it still exists. Anyone can see a painting of Queen Elizabeth and see the same features of strength and power. This Greco-Roman influence is seen even today in portraits of Princess Diana or Mrs. Clinton. The Greco-Roman legacy of women with these features is seen in the admiration and adulation of these types of women in art throughout time. Another of Botticellis works, entitled Primavera, done in 1482 is yet another depiction of women of the Greco-Roman era. The work exhibits women in the woods dancing, with transparent clothing showing their body. There is a cupid on the top and the background is very natural and bright. This work gives the viewer the feeling of the beauty of the body, as seen in almost any female depiction, the harmony of nature with humans, love, kindness, innocence, virginity and purity. This gives the viewer yet another idea of how women were seen in the Greco-Roman era. Obviously, the virtuousness of the woman with nature can be seen in many contemporary works, such as this Botticelli, and also modern works. While most people today may link nude women to pornography there are artists that can still redefine and capture the virtuous essence of a woman with nature. These works and previous works are all influenced by the Greco-Roman cultures view of women. Botticellis The Birth of Venus(1484-86) and Titians Venus of Urbino(1538) are contemporary works that have been directly influenced by the Greco-Roman cultures depiction of a female goddess. The depiction is of a woman born from nature with a perfect body and extreme beauty. The works give a feeling of how the Greco-Roman cultures felt about heavenly apparitions. The beauty of the body is shown through smooth lines and curves and very soft textures. The goddess is a perfect creature. While there is not a following of the myths and legends of the Greeks and the Romans today or very much after their cultures existed, the legacy of a goddess being perfect in every way is shown in many paintings of them throughout history. This can be seen in a poster designed by Andy Warhol in 1984 and a German movie poster for Marlene Deitrich in Blonde Venus in the 1930s. Warhol depicts Venus head, but in four different frames of different colors. .u5cb8a9814ebcae6643967356f29f5222 , .u5cb8a9814ebcae6643967356f29f5222 .postImageUrl , .u5cb8a9814ebcae6643967356f29f5222 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u5cb8a9814ebcae6643967356f29f5222 , .u5cb8a9814ebcae6643967356f29f5222:hover , .u5cb8a9814ebcae6643967356f29f5222:visited , .u5cb8a9814ebcae6643967356f29f5222:active { border:0!important; } .u5cb8a9814ebcae6643967356f29f5222 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u5cb8a9814ebcae6643967356f29f5222 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u5cb8a9814ebcae6643967356f29f5222:active , .u5cb8a9814ebcae6643967356f29f5222:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u5cb8a9814ebcae6643967356f29f5222 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u5cb8a9814ebcae6643967356f29f5222 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u5cb8a9814ebcae6643967356f29f5222 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u5cb8a9814ebcae6643967356f29f5222 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u5cb8a9814ebcae6643967356f29f5222:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u5cb8a9814ebcae6643967356f29f5222 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u5cb8a9814ebcae6643967356f29f5222 .u5cb8a9814ebcae6643967356f29f5222-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u5cb8a9814ebcae6643967356f29f5222:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: An Overview Of Industrialized Building Systems Construction Essay Andy was a very contemporary and very psychedelic artist. By combining the beauty of the goddess with his own vision he maintained her beauty and brought it to a new modern level. The movie poster shows a beautiful blonde woman with a see through top-something Venus might even wear. This poster was created in a time when Germany was beginning to increase its patriotism and bring itself to believe that it was the best and only country and race. This poster uses the beauty of Venus to help them with certain propaganda during that time. The influence is obvious. The beauty and perfection of a goddess has a profound impact on whoever may see it. These modern artists used that influence to try to benefit or promote something. Finally, the painting of Odalisque by Ingres in 1814 is also heavily influenced by the Greco-Roman cultures. His use of line, texture, contour of the body, physique, and color all related directly to these cultures view of the women. The Guerilla Girls, a bus poster made in the 1980s, is the same as the Odalisque, except a guerilla head is on the body. This poster was making a point on art. That is, why are most works of art of nude women? As can be seen here the influence is somewhat hidden, but it is still there, and used to make a social point. These particular works of art and countless others all delve into the Greco-Roman cultures psyche. Their legacy of myths, legends and especially their lifestyles, which were based on these myths and legends, has generated priceless and timeless works of art. The themes they used were used throughout the history of Western Art, all the way up to the present, and definitely beyond. As a matter of fact, there may be no escaping the influence these cultures had on art. Although an artist may think s/he has created something new, the fundamental themes seen in the Greco-Roman arts, are still being played upon to create that art.

Living My Second Life free essay sample

I should not be here right now. I should be in a grave, my body six feet under the ground and decaying. The leaves that are now turning bright yellows, reds and oranges should be lightly decorating my cold gray tombstone. The truth is I should have died two years ago, and for some reason I am still here. It was early November during my sophomore year. I had just overcome a virus, but I was still running a high temperature. My mother was concerned and thought that I should see the doctor. I remember refusing her and saying the fever would run its course. Then late at night, I remember feeling a sudden stabbing pain across my abdomen. My mother was frantic, and called our neighbor who was a nurse. She came over and examined me. She told me it was not my appendix, but was something else. She urged me to go to the doctor and be checked out as soon as possible. We will write a custom essay sample on Living My Second Life or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page He could not figure out what it was. My appendix was fine, but something was wrong with my abdominal region. It was an MRI that gave the doctor a clue as to what was going on. The scan showed my liver was double the size of an average person’s. Matching previous tests to the scan, the doctor called my parents with his diagnosis. I had Wilson’s disease, a deadly disease that kills your liver. There is no cure, and the treatments can make you worse. The only thing you can do is pray for a transplant while dying a slow painful death. Being told you are going to die is hard enough, but the doctor had left it up to my parents to inform me. I will never forget their faces. They were marked with sadness, pity, and disbelief as they handed me my death notice. As they told me, I remembered how my uncle had reacted six years before, when he was told he was going to die of cancer. He handled it with strength, but at the same time you could see it ate away at him. As my parents de livered the news, my mind was made up. I was going to handle this with even more strength than he did. I was going to act like nothing had changed, especially when I was around my family. That December, I went to Boston Children’s Hospital for a consultation and possible biopsy. My parents were with me and both of them held my hand when we entered the hospital. I remember everybody looking at me with pity, and hating it. They saw me as a girl who was about to lose her life before she had lived it. The only person who didn’t look at me as if I was going to drop dead at any second was my doctor. She was the best on the east coast, and is the only reason why I am still here. She reviewed my tests before she made any decisions regarding my prognosis. She was the one who found the glitch in the MRI, and was the one who told me three hours later, that I did not have Wilson’s disease. March came and I was still in agony. At this point, I could not get out of bed on my own. Getting through the school day was nearly impossible. I was sent home often because the pain was unbearable. After it was deemed that I was unable to make it through a normal school day, I underwent rigorous testing to figure out what was wrong. In the end, I was told my intestinal tract had shut down entirely because of several serious factors. I was also given strict instructions on how to treat my condition. If I overdosed or under dosed on my medicine, I would die. Within a few weeks I was getting better. To make up for all the school I missed, I stayed after nearly every day so I could catch up and pass all my classes. Most of my teachers were more than happy to comply. Within a year, I was completely normal. Now, nearly two years later, I am fully recovered. Because of this experience, I view life differently than most people. Each day is a new adventure, and I try to seize it and take advantage of it. When I was sick there were so many things I couldn’t do. I know now that the world is a place of opportunity. I try to take advantage of every experience I can get. I work hard for things I am passionate about. These are qualities that not many people have, and these are qualities that I could offer your school if I were accepted. If accepted, I could use these qualities not only in academics, but community service and the workforce after graduation. My drive and my determination for success would be a valuable asset for your school that you could not find just anywhere. The passion and motivation I have exists in people that are supposed to be dead, people like me who have been given a second chance at life.

The Bible among the Myths

The Bible among the Myths Introduction John N. Oswalt, the author of the book â€Å"The Bible among the Myths† and he introduces his book by a comparison of the Old Testament, beliefs, and acculturation. John as well explains a great theoretical division while judging the Old Testament against its equals.Advertising We will write a custom book review sample on The Bible among the Myths specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Some of the differences that Oswalt notes include â€Å"essence† and â€Å"adversity†. When an individual speaks concerning the essence of a given entity, the individual is citing the things that compose its practical details.1 Adversities, on the other hand, refer to things that are purely accidental and do not essentially describe the entity. John Oswalt brings the reader into the perception of myth. With the admission that intellectuals vary intensely on a particular description, John affirms that this aspect is not suppos ed to deter the person from searching for an excellent description of the word. With the aim describing the word, John Oswalt lists four fundamental features of a myth. To start with, one of the features is that people possess slight or no intrinsic worth. Another feature is virtual lack of concern in historical researches. Thirdly, is the carrying out of magical and association with occultism and lastly is the denial of accountability for individual activities. In the last section of the introduction, John maintains that theological assertions are indivisible from historical assertions. Reliability of the theological concerns depends on the reliability of the historical assertions. Should the historical assertions be actually bogus, then no acceptance should be accorded to the theological assertions.Advertising Looking for book review on religion theology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Nevertheless, if the histor ical assertions are in line with the known, then the person who reads the bible must take the theological assertions critically. Chapter One The initial chapter of this book handles the bible with respect to its setting and the role it plays in the community at large. John affirms that there exists numerous of its roles with regard to the manner in which the Western world perceives certainty, with the Bible acting as the greatest contributor. The Greek people initiated a form of thinking that bore weighty influence on the community. Some of their most noteworthy roles include the conviction in the â€Å"universe† rather than a â€Å"polyverse†, plain cause and effect, and non-inconsistency.2 The Hebrew individuals were as well distinctive in their worldview and the impact was almost the same. Their belief was in the existence of just one God, the creator of the universe. God is separately existent from the creation. He found it necessary for Him and His testament to be identified by human beings. Moreover, God awards and reprimands individuals after going against His will. Both Hebrews and Greeks shared common thinking patterns concerning certainty in numerous approaches. The intellectual thinking of the Greeks coalesced with the monotheism, which was embraced by the Hebrews. The conviction of the Greek people concerning the law of non-inconsistency merged with the conviction of the Hebrew people concerning the existence of God as detached and different from creation.Advertising We will write a custom book review sample on The Bible among the Myths specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More John raises the controversy that sense was not fully established until after individuals came to the realization that God was not just the creator, but as well totally different from the creation. In spite of the presently supported convictions of the dominance of sense and science with the exception of religion, John af firms that sense and science brings about self-annihilation.3 Devoid of the inspiring creator of the universe to guide the ways of humanity, individuals just appear to serve themselves. John applies Hiroshima and Buchenwald campsite as instances of the accomplishments of people without the influence of God. Chapter Two In chapter two, John tries to come up with an applicable description for myth. Prior to the description of myth, John re-examines the idea that intellectuals have wandered from the perception that the Bible is distinctive from other publications, religions, and cultures of Ancient Near East. From the 1960s, intellectuals have been affirming that the features of the Bible and its current conviction systems have universal resistance grounds although the information employed in backing these grounds has stayed unchanged. The author desires using the suitable categorization to the Bible. Particularly, he deals with the concern of whether the Bible could be perceived as my th or not. In a bid to respond suitably to such issue, an individual must reflect on the numerous descriptions created currently by intellectuals. John names these descriptions and discusses his reasons for deeming them insufficient.4 A particular group of descriptions lies in the historical-philosophical class. The initial description of myth in this class is the etymological description. The weight here is placed on the fallacy of the deity or incident.Advertising Looking for book review on religion theology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The second description is the sociological-theological description. As per this description, the reality is deemed virtual and something is regarded as truth when other people have first deemed it as truth. The last description is the literary description. Under this description, the incidents are not viewed as correct or incorrect.5 Rather, the narrative utilizes intense application of symbolism to convey its implication. The numerous descriptions of myth bear a common item at their central point, viz. they all support the idea of continuity. According to continuity, not all items are associated with each other, although they are each other in one way or another. John employs the case of an individual as â€Å"with a tree†. In accordance with continuity, the person is not only symbolically the one having the tree, but the person is a section of the quintessence of the tree and the tree is similarly a section of the quintessence of the person. Chapter Three The third chapter mainly focuses on continuity. The main thing that myths bear in common at their central point is the existence of continuity. The manner of thinking with respect to continuity perceives all items as a section of each other in a number of ways. Some three vital strengths (humankind, the natural world, and divinity) are present on a spherical scale where they all bear substantial and indefinite overlie. John affirms that the effects of a worldview like that are extensive.6 A major consequence is the highlight of searching for indications in nature. Endeavors are carried out at presenting truth from climatic samples such as epidemics, fire, droughts, and heavenly bodies. A different consequence is the application of magic to sway and have an impact on the universe. The final instance from the list of consequences of continuity encompasses the appeal of people on fertility. John applies the instance of the way sexuality is vital to the people’s lives presently based on the conseq uence of continuity. In conclusion, John tackles his perception of the common characteristics of myth bluntly. Except for a few exclusions, all myths have in common that there exists several gods.7 Additionally, myths share the conviction of the application of representations and signs to interrelate with the godly and nature. The gods are regarded lowly and are perceived to be imperfect things. The explanations on creation entail some kind of major argument with the intention of resulting into the cosmos. Lastly, myths share low natural worth set on humankind, which originates from the conviction that there exists no measure of ethics. Chapter Four In the fourth chapter, John opts to discuss features of the Bible. In this regard, he tackles the subject of transcendence where deity (existing separate from the universe) decisively interrelates with cosmos in an intense and supernatural manner. John offers the reader an all-inclusive list of a number of common features. Among the most apparent features of the Bible is monotheism, which delineates Christianity from other religions.8 Aside from the religions that owe their origin to the Bible, roughly every other religion revered more than one god. A major different feature was the conviction of the pre-existence of God. There is not a thing in the universe that was present before God. All things that exist are thus compliant to God who created them all. Most of the creation explanations of myth entail divine being(s) controlling matter in a number of ways with the intention of shaping the universe, as it currently exists. According to the Bible, God created all things from nothing.9 The Bible ranks humankind highly, which is another feature that outlines biblical notion unlike in other religious convictions. This declaration adds up when a human being takes the words of the Bible from Genesis chapter 1 and verse 27, which affirms that God made humans in His likeness. Human beings bear natural worth, they were the climax of the creation of God and were charged with authority over it.10 Different features that outline the biblical worldview unlike other world perceptions is the conviction of God as supra sexual, the forbiddance against magical performances, and the ethical regulations that God commands people to obey. Transcendence could be regarded as the basic standard amid the major features of biblical conception. Chapter Five In this chapter, John carries on the suggestion that the Bible should not fall in the class of myths. John goes into details with the subject of ethics. Two outlines of ethics were supported by the non-biblical world perceptions in the Ancient Near East. One of the outlines tackled the manner in which individuals interrelated with one another.11 The second outline of ethics tackled the way individuals acted upon the divine beings. According to the Bible, ethical conduct was set by God, and thus not subject to the urges of change by the society. Other unique characte ristics of the biblical ethics encompass a single lay down of ethics, universal relevance of the ethical systems, and criticism against others, which were deemed an evil doing towards God. John discusses a number of resemblances involving both Israelites and non-Israelites. Even being alike, John reiterates his conviction that these sections are accidental and not necessary to the fundamental uniqueness of those individuals. Chapter Six Similar to the description of myth, history denotes another expression that has been described in a different way by numerous intellectuals. Even as the description of myth is somewhat controversial, the descriptions of history are not as diverse. John employs Webster’s New World Dictionary of the American Language in a bid to acquire descriptions that he sees as a depiction of the accord. During the early times, there were numerous and different kinds of writings that provided intellectuals with the awareness into the existence of humanity. W hile frequently helpful in the comprehension of cultures of ancient times, John affirms that the majority of their writings are not as per the description of the history. The numerous kinds of non-biblical writings entail omens, king lists, and date formulae just to mention a few.12 Omens try to apply representations from nature to establish the line of action that a leader must follow. King lists encompass descendants of considerable individuals, but frequently highly overstate the information. The date formulae comprises of a list of major occasions in the progression of a community, but fails to connect the occasions in a manner that provides individuals a profound understanding of the culture. Other kinds of non-biblical writings fail to satisfy accurately the state of history due to overstatements and highlights on a person over groups of individuals among other reasons. The people who existed in the ancient times did not employ historic writings. John outlines a number of caus es for this trend. The individuals of ancient times failed to see the significance of writing information for the gain of others because they were only caring of the present situation. A different cause for their failure to make use of historic writing was due to their self-seeking perspective. They were not concerned with removing themselves from current conditions while writing concerning occasions due to the creation of intensely biased descriptions. Additionally, they believed in numerous foundations when simple foundations were adequate, backed by the conviction that they would not have power over their destinies and cared more regarding sustaining order. Nevertheless, the Bible is distinctive in its dealing with historical occasions. It tackles human beings as actual mortal persons.13 The authors incorporated imperfections in their descriptions while non-biblical authors could not reveal the same. For instance, the account of David and the way he sexually sinned prior to a kil ling to conceal the crime/sin. The highlights of people affiliations and selections are as well instances of things that result into the distinctiveness of the Bible and its portrayal of history. Chapter Seven and Chapter Eight The author tackles a number of alarms that are raised in opposition to the Bible regarding its historical authenticity. A number of these issues regard its disclosure, supernatural occurrences, and if Israel was distinctive in these sections.14 The author exposes the manner in which the supernaturally exposure of God to the humankind by Himself resulted into the Israelites ascertaining that they were cautious in guaranteeing that they were perfect in their scripts. Oswalt gives an explanation in the eighth chapter that is significant in the comprehension that the Bible is a historically perfect text. John arrived at the notion of the perfectness of the Bible to some extent earlier in the script, but develops it in the eighth chapter. It is significant to unde rstand the entire Bible is historical. Pertaining to the poetry books, the prophetic books and other books in the Old Testament, they disclose the historical standpoint of the Bible. These sections depict individuals and stretch out their connections with each other, cautious not to marginalize flaws, imperfections, and indecencies. John brings the reader to a greatly shaded perspective of history and divides the description. The wrapping up of this part verifies history in the Bible to be undividable from theology therein. It is from theological convictions that historical occurrences sprout. John employs a perfect instance in the resurrection of Jesus to back this ending. In the book of Corinthians, Paul declares that the conviction of a person cannot survive devoid of historical conviction in Christ’s resurrection.15 Chapters Nine and Ten Chapter 9 tackles a number of alternative perspectives regarding the biblical description as it currently exists. The primary condemnati on is by John Seters and the manner in which he stated that Jewish priests changed the biblical writings probably to suit their needs following the expatriation of Babylon.16 A different condemnation is by Frank Cross in insisting that the Bible is utilized as heroic poetry, but was modified at a particular point to the condition of the Old Testament. The third condemnation by William Dever involves his conviction that the faith structures of Israelites were equivalent to the faith structures of the Canaanites. Additionally, he declares that Christian intellectuals have paid no attention to distinct realities all through history and have instead opted to smear an incorrect description of the traditional Israel. Lastly, John Oswalt discusses Mark Smith and the way he portrays that the beliefs of Israelites originated from the polytheistic convictions of the Canaanites.17 In conclusion, John Oswalt sums up his book in the tenth chapter and essentially reaffirms his major points from t he earlier chapters. The main theme that Oswalt highlights is the one of the dissimilarity between biblical and non-biblical perspectives of truth. The biblical perspective is based on the transcendence whereas the non-biblical perspective is based on continuity. Bibliography Oswalt John. The Bible among the Myths. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2009. Footnotes 1 John Oswalt, The Bible Among the Myths (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2009), 11-12. 2 Ibid, 21-23. 3 Ibid, 24-27. 4 Ibid, 29-34. 5 Ibid, 35-43. 6 Ibid, 48-53. 7 Ibid, 54-61. 8 Ibid, 64-70. 9 Ibid, 71-78. 10 Ibid, 79-82. 11 Ibid, 85-107. 12 Ibid, 112-120. 13 Ibid, 121-127. 14 Ibid, 138-157. 15 Ibid, 158-170. 16 Ibid, 172-176. 17 Ibid, 177-185.

General George Washington in the American Revolution

General George Washington in the American Revolution Born February 22, 1732, along Popes Creek in Virginia, George Washington was the son of Augustine and Mary Washington. A successful tobacco planter, Augustine also became involved in several mining ventures and served as Justice of the Westmoreland County Court. Beginning at a young age, George Washington began spending most of his time at Ferry Farm near Fredericksburg, VA. One of several children, Washington lost his father at age eleven. As a result, he attended school locally and was taught by tutors rather than following his older brothers to England to enroll at the Appleby School. Leaving school at fifteen, Washington considered a career in the Royal Navy but was blocked by his mother. In 1748, Washington developed an interest in surveying and later obtained his license from the College of William and Mary. A year later, Washington used his familys connections to the powerful Fairfax clan to obtain the position of surveyor of newly-formed Culpeper County. This proved a lucrative post and allowed him to begin buying land in the Shenandoah Valley. The early years of Washingtons work also saw him employed by the Ohio Company to survey land in western Virginia. His career was also aided by his half-brother Lawrence who commanded the Virginia militia. Using these ties, the 62 Washington came to the attention of Lieutenant Governor Robert Dinwiddie. Following Lawrences death in 1752, Washington was made a major in the militia by Dinwiddie and assigned as one of four district adjutants. French Indian War In 1753, French forces began moving into the Ohio Country which was claimed by Virginia and the other English colonies. Responding to these incursions, Dinwiddie dispatched Washington north with a letter instructing the French to depart. Meeting with key Native American leaders en route, Washington delivered the letter to Fort Le Boeuf that December. Receiving the Virginian, the French commander,  Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre, announced that his forces would not withdraw. Returning to Virginia, Washingtons journal from the expedition was published on Dinwiddies order and helped him gain recognition throughout the colony. A year later, Washington was placed command of a construction party and sent north to aid in building a fort at the Forks of the Ohio. Assisted by the Mingo chief Half-King, Washington moved through the wilderness. Along the way, he learned that a large French force was already at the forks constructing Fort Duquesne. Establishing a base camp at Great Meadows, Washington attacked a French scouting party led by Ensign Joseph Coulon de Jumonville, at the Battle of Jumonville Glen on May 28, 1754. This attack prompted a response and a large French force moved south to deal with Washington. Constructing Fort Necessity, Washington was reinforced as he prepared to meet this new threat.   In the resulting Battle of Great Meadows on July 3, his command was beaten and ultimately forced to surrender. Following the defeat, Washington and his men were permitted to return to Virginia. These engagements began the French Indian War and led to the arrival of additional British troops in Virginia. In 1755, Washington joined Major General Edward Braddocks advance on Fort Duquesne as a volunteer aide to the general.   In this role, he was present when Braddock was badly defeated and killed at the Battle of the Monongahela that July. Despite the failure of the campaign, Washington performed well during the battle and worked tirelessly to rally British and colonial forces.   In recognition of this, he received command of the Virginia Regiment. In this role, he proved a strict officer and trainer. Leading the regiment, he vigorously defended the frontier against the Native Americans and later took part in the Forbes Expedition which captured Fort Duquesne in 1758. Peacetime In 1758, Washington resigned his commission and retired from the regiment. Returning to private life, he married the wealthy widow Martha Dandridge Custis on January 6, 1759, and took up residence at Mount Vernon, a plantation he had inherited from Lawrence. With his newly obtained means, Washington began expanding his real estate holdings and greatly expanded the plantation. This also saw him diversify its operations to include milling, fishing, textiles, and distilling. Though he never had children of his own, he aided in raising Marthas son and daughter from her previous marriage. As one of the colonys wealthiest men, Washington began serving in the House of Burgesses in 1758. Moving to Revolution Over the next decade, Washington grew his business interests and influence. Though he disliked the 1765 Stamp Act, he did not begin publicly opposing British taxes until 1769 when he organized a boycott in response to the Townshend Acts. With the introduction of the Intolerable Acts following the 1774 Boston Tea Party, Washington commented that the legislation was an invasion of our rights and privileges. As the situation with Britain deteriorated, he chaired the meeting at which the Fairfax Resolves were passed and was selected to represent Virginia at the First Continental Congress. With the Battles of Lexington Concord in April 1775 and the beginning of the American Revolution, Washington began attending meetings of the Second Continental Congress in his military uniform. Leading the Army With the Siege of Boston ongoing, Congress formed the Continental Army on June 14, 1775. Due to his experience, prestige, and Virginia roots, Washington was nominated as commander in chief by John Adams. Accepting reluctantly, he rode north to take command. Arriving at Cambridge, MA, he found the army badly disorganized and lacking supplies. Establishing his headquarters at the Benjamin Wadsworth House, he worked to organize his men, obtain needed munitions, and improve the fortifications around Boston. He also dispatched Colonel Henry Knox to Fort Ticonderoga to bring the installations guns to Boston. In a massive effort, Knox completed this mission and Washington was able to emplace these guns on Dorchester Heights in March 1776. This action forced the British to abandon the city.  Ã‚   Keeping an Army Together Recognizing that New York would likely be the next British target, Washington moved south in 1776. Opposed by General William Howe and Vice Admiral Richard Howe, Washington was forced from the city after being flanked and defeated at Long Island in August. In the wake of the defeat, his army narrowly escaped back to Manhattan from its fortifications in Brooklyn. Though he won a victory at Harlem Heights, a string of defeats, including at White Plains, saw Washington driven north then west across New Jersey. Crossing the Delaware, Washingtons situation was desperate as his army was badly reduced and enlistments were expiring. Needing a victory to bolster spirits, Washington conducted a daring attack on Trenton on Christmas night. Moving Towards Victory Capturing the towns Hessian garrison, Washington followed up this triumph with a victory at Princeton a few days later before entering winter quarters. Rebuilding the army through 1777, Washington marched south to block British efforts against the American capital of Philadelphia. Meeting Howe on September 11, he again flanked and beaten at the Battle of Brandywine. The city fell shortly after the fighting. Seeking to turn the tide, Washington mounted a counterattack in October but was narrowly defeated at Germantown. Withdrawing to Valley Forge for the winter, Washington embarked on a massive training program which was overseen by Baron Von Steuben. During this period, he was forced to endure intrigues such as the Conway Cabal, in which officers sought to have him removed and replaced with Major General Horatio Gates. Emerging from Valley Forge, Washington began a pursuit of the British as they withdrew to New York. Attacking at the Battle of Monmouth, the Americans fought the British to a standstill. The fighting saw Washington at the front working tirelessly to rally his men. Pursuing the British, Washington settled into a loose siege of New York as the focus of the fighting shifted to the southern colonies. As commander in chief, Washington worked to direct operations on the other fronts from his headquarters. Joined by French forces in 1781, Washington moved south and besieged Lieutenant General Lord Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown. Receiving the British surrender on October 19, the battle effectively ended the war. Returning to New York, Washington endured another year of struggling to keep the army together amid a lack of funds and supplies. Later Life With the Treaty of Paris in 1783, the war came to an end. Though immensely popular and in position to become a dictator if he desired, Washington resigned his commission at Annapolis, MD on December 23, 1783, confirming the precedent of civilian authority over the military. In later years, Washington would serve as president of the Constitutional Convention and as the first President of the United States. As a military man, Washingtons true value came as an inspirational leader who proved capable of keeping the army together and maintaining resistance during the darkest days of the conflict. A key symbol of the American Revolution, Washingtons ability command respect was only surpassed by his willingness to cede power back to the people. When he learned of Washingtons resignation, King George III stated: If he does that, he will be the greatest man in the world.

Cultural communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Cultural communication - Essay Example According to the Teamsterville’s code of communication that is code of honor, the people of the society communicate on the basis of their social roles. For them, the social meaning is related to their social positions. The male and female members of the society have to use their code of honor in order to continue with a relationship or to communicate. For them, social meaning is concerned with cultural communication. They use cultural codes to indicate their part in society. According to Nacirema’s code of communication that is code of dignity, the people of the society communicate on the basis of their self-growth. For them, the social meaning is related to their own self. They consider the society as secondary and their own self as primary. They employ code of dignity that states that an individual is important and should be given full opportunity to grow for his/her own self. For them, social meaning is related to self- growth. They give too much importance to communication as close, supportive and flexible and in case of lack of communication, they consider the situation as problematic. For them social meaning is related to closeness, supportiveness and flexibility in communication. Cultural codes play a crucial role in our lives and they help us to identify ourselves and our society. Every culture has some patterns and believes and people tend to be different with their respective cultures. The ethnographic definition of culture can be a shared set of values identified by all members of the society. Culture of a society or individuals can be revealed by means of communication. Communication is very significant in the identification of cultural roles of a person. In communication, we inform other people about our cultural codes. For every person of society, there is some rule of communication according to which, he or she communicates with the rest of the people of the society. In Speaking Culturally by

The effects of alcohol drinking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The effects of alcohol drinking - Essay Example This paper will elaborate on the noxious effects of drinking on physical health, mental and psychological well-being and education that later lead to adverse consequences to society as a whole. Effects of Drinking It should be pointed out that alcohol drinking among youths has increased tremendously in last 15 – 20 years primarily due to peer influence, excessive drinking of family members, portrayal of exaggerated images of fortitude / bravery of actors in movies, continuous persuasive and reminder advertising of alcohol beverages. Kremer and Levy (2008) have highlighted that frequent / occasional alcohol drinking is common among students who share similar rooms with other alcohol drinkers. Nevertheless, the academic performance of such drinkers is significantly lower in comparison to non-drinkers. Usually, students end up with poor grades and low CGPAs as an outcome of their drinking habit (addiction to alcohol). Drinkers are found addicted to life-threatening drugs and narc otics. The second most dangerous effect of alcohol drinking on youths is behavioral misconduct and aggravation of thinking and understanding abilities (Snyder et al, 2006). ... As a result, unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases take place, which negatively affects health of male and female students. For instance, the situation becomes grave when male students get indulged in sexual harassment, ‘dating violence’ and physical abuse to their female counterparts, which then lead to disciplinary violations and lack of harmony within premises of educational institutions (Miller et al, 2006). Other serious behavioral issues with youth drinkers include carelessness / recklessness / wildness in driving and aggressive moves towards other students; the outcomes of which are nothing but grisly accidents (life-long disabilities and financial losses) and unnecessary (baseless and avoidable) combats between / among rival individuals / groups. The worst outcomes of frequent alcohol drinking (especially the case with addicts) include lack of emotional stability / control and obvious personality weaknesses, which then leads to ‘suicides an d homicides’ as highlighted by Duncan et al (2005). For instance, emotionally unstable (and drunk) youths when become hopeless at a certain point in their life then they commit suicides, thereby considering any unfavorable outcomes and events as an end of the world. Similarly, when drunk youths are unable to satisfy themselves through aggression and physically torture towards their rivals, they select homicide as an appropriate option and assassinate their enemies. Conclusion I would now like to end up this analysis by summarizing the facts that alcohol drinking is not only detrimental for a drinker’s mental and physical health but also may lead to conflicts among people, suicides and murders. Society, as a whole, is affected because emotionally

Finding a New Advertising Agency Essay Example for Free

Finding a New Advertising Agency Essay It started with a pair of certified letters to MINI USA’s Woodcliff Lake headquarters in northern New Jersey in the summer of 2005. One of the letters was addressed to Jim McDowell, vice president and managing director of MINI USA, the U.S. division of BMW’s MINI automobile brand. The other letter was to Trudy Hardy, marketing manager for MINI USA and a direct report to McDowell. Both letters were from Scheid, Roberts, and Reicher (SRR),1 MINI’s advertising agency since 2001, and both arrived at their respective destinations at almost exactly the same time. From her desk, which was not in the immediate proximity of McDowell’s office, Hardy sat back in her chair and opened the letter without the knowledge that McDowell had just received a similar letter. Her thoughts and feelings as she broke the seal of the envelope and read the one-page letter partly confirmed previous suspicions but, nevertheless, included a sense of great disappointment and some hurt feelings. A rare event in the client-advertising agency relationship, SRR’s letter informed Hardy that they would resign the MINI account in order to pursue a larger account with a competing German automobile manufacturer. For Hardy, it was during the next few moments that the gravity of the event began to sink in. SRR had been the ad agency for MINI ever since the months leading up to the U.S. launch of the new MINI Cooper, which was the first new car launched by the MINI brand since its acquisition by BMW several years earlier. In a time when the duration of a client-advertising agency relationship typically lasted for just about two years, the collaboration with SRR had been in her mind a productive one for almost five years. And in the same way that she believed the relationship had been extremely valuable  to MINI, it was also hard for Hardy to believe that the same did not hold true for SRR as well. In 2001, the MINI account stood as one of the first major SRR client wins when it was a start-up agency with fewer than 50 employees. SRR had now grown to more than 300 employees, and the launch of the MINI Cooper was an unquestioned success. In some ways, MINI and SRR had grown up together. 1 Although this case is based on actual events, Scheid, Roberts, and Reicher (SRR) is a fictional name for MINI USA’s advertising agency from 2001 to 2005. For simplicity, hereinafter, MINI is used as opposed to MINI USA. 2 The BMW Group maintained a general rule that each BMW brand have its own advertising agency. For example, SRR could not work for BMW and MINI at the same time. ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Professor David Godes prepared this case with the assistance of Research Associate Peter Wickersham. HBS cases are developed solely as the basis for class discussion. Cases are not intended to serve as endorsements, sources of primary data, or illustrations of effective or ineffective management. Copyright  © 2007, 2008 President and Fellows of Harvard College. To order copies or request permission to reproduce materials, call 1-800-5457685, write Harvard Business School Publishing, Boston, MA 02163, or go to http://www.hbsp.harvard.edu. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, used in a spreadsheet, or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise—without the permission of Harvard Business School. Hardy began to think of the task before her. In one sense, if she were the marketing manager for almost any other product, the selection of a new advertising agency might not have been such a critical task. But the MINI brand, in almost every respect, was unique—from the design of the car itself to the passionate owners of the car who, for example, often named their MINI Cooper as they would a pet or family member. MINI’s advertising since the launch of the Cooper had been highly unconventional, and although she had no immediate ideas of how to proceed in finding a new agency, Hardy knew that  the selection process would need to be just as unique. The BMW Group and MINI Mini History We went round the works, and I drove him at a hell of a speed—I’m sure he was terrified—but then he was so impressed by its road holding. We stopped outside his office. He got out of the car and he said, â€Å"Go ahead and make it.† — Alec Issigonis, head of design for the Morris Mini Minor (a.k.a, the Mini), conversation with Leonard Lord, chairman of British Motor Corporation (BMC), 19583 The twentieth century witnessed the creation of scores of automobiles, but it can be argued that only a handful of these cars transcended the others to become cultural icons. For some car enthusiasts, the short list of such cars might have included the likes of the Ford Model T or Volkswagen Beetle. For those living in the United Kingdom and Europe in the 40 years between 1959 and the end of the century, the Mini Minor and its descendants, including the original Mini Cooper, would almost certainly have been counted among them. The genesis for what was to become the Mini was attributed to Leonard Lord in response to the nationalization of the Suez Canal by Egypt in September 1956. Since it was thought this action might disrupt or restrict the shipment of oil from the Middle East, Lord commissioned Alec Issigonis to design a small car intended for those seeking frugal transport. The design requirements were few and simple: the ability to seat four people, use of a BMC engine, and an overall size smaller than that of current BMC cars. Issigonis formed a team of eight designers and engineers. In one of their first meetings together, Issigonis placed four wooden chairs on the workshop floor in two rows of two and asked four of his team members to sit in them. They then shuffled the chairs around on the floor until each could sit comfortably in a minimum of space. The rough dimensions were captured in chalk on the workshop floor; the passenger space required was to be at least 8 feet 9 inches long, Purchased for use on the MSc International Marketing, at Kings College London, Department of Management. Taught by Douglas West, from 12-Jan-2015 to 27-Mar-2015. Order ref F240566. Usage permitted only within these parameters otherwise contact [emailprotected] â€Å"Well, I guess they’re off to greener pastures,† he said in a matter-of-fact tone. After talking some more about the resignation, they soon turned their attention to finding a new partner. â€Å"Listen, I have total confidence in you to find our next agency,† McDowell assured Hardy. â€Å"It won’t be easy, but you know our brand better than anyone. The only catch is that we should probably have this nailed down before the end of the year, which means early December. Let’s talk more once you have an idea of where you’d like to take the search.† With those words, McDowell left Hardy’s office. In addition to its small size (and in some cases because of it), the design of the Mini contained several other notable innovations. It was one of the first front-wheel-drive cars, and its engine was mounted transversely so as not to contribute more than two feet to the overall length of the car. The wide spacing of the wheels allowed for more efficient passenger space, and thus more than 80% of the overall dimensions of the Mini were devoted to luggage and occupants. The design of the Mini also had some other unique consequences. First, the Mini’s simple layout made it easy for owners to modify the interior and exterior of the car; as a result, customization of the car became common. Second, its wide wheel spacing and low center of gravity made the Mini suitable for development of a racing variant of the car. An acquaintance of Issigonis, John Cooper, created the Mini Cooper in 1961 to be driven in rally races. The Mini Cooper was quite successful,  winning the prestigious Monte Carlo rally in 1964, 1965, and 1967. In all, around 150,000 Mini Coopers were produced. The mass-produced version of the Mini was a success in terms of unit sales. It also attracted a cult-like following. Each of the four Beatles owned a Mini as did Peter Sellers and many other famous British celebrities of the day. In 1995, the Mini was voted â€Å"Car of the Century† by readers of Autocar, a U.K. car magazine. BMW Acquires Mini Although the Mini was universally considered a success, the same could not be said for the succession of parent companies that owned the brand. In 1968, British Leyland was formed when BMC merged with the Leyland truck company. In 1975, British Leyland went bankrupt, and the company—with classic brands such as Jaguar, Rover, MG, Triumph, and Mini—was bought out by the British government. In 1988, the collection of surviving brands, now referred to as the Rover Group, was sold to British Aerospace, another nationalized company. Along the way, there were notable investments made in the Rover Group by other car manufacturers, including Honda of Japan, which owned approximately 25% of the company at one time. Yet, the greatest investment and perhaps the biggest surprise occurred in 1994 when BMW, the German luxury automaker with 1993 sales of $18 billion, acquired Rover and its brands, including Mini, for $1.2 billion. In the eyes of senior management at the BMW Auto Group (AG), the vision for the purchase of the Rover Group was to take the company into a new international era. Bernd Pischetsrieder, who was named chief executive officer of BMW AG in 1994, explained it this way: â€Å"The key to success is continuously changing your focus over the long term . . . in the ‘80s, we focused on enhancing the engineering process. The  key emphasis for the ‘90s is globalization of the entire business, including financing, product engineering, styling, designing, manufacturing, and sourcing.†4 Similarly, some industry analysts believed that BMW could not afford to compete solely at the luxury end of a maturing world car market. The acquisition of the Mini brand and the decision to develop the new MINI was seen as a solid strategy to offer less expensive cars without jeopardizing the integrity of the BMW brand.5 According to an analyst with Commerzbank, â€Å"By slightly modifying an existing brand, effectively ‘inserting’ a new vehicle into it, it avoids having to pay all the upfront costs associated 4 J. P. Donlon, â€Å"Honk if you are global (interview with BMW CEO Bernd Pischetsrieder),† Chief Executive, October 1, 1994. 5 BMW differentiated the new version of the Mini from the original by capitalizing all four letters when referring to the new model (i.e., MINI). 3 Purchased for use on the MSc International Marketing, at Kings College London, Department of Management. Taught by Douglas West, from 12-Jan-2015 to 27-Mar-2015. Order ref F240566. Usage permitted only within these parameters otherwise contact [emailprotected]  feet 2 inches wide, and 4 feet 4 inches high. Ultimately, once the engine and luggage space were added, the Mini was designed to be just 10 feet in length (Exhibit 1). MINI USA: Finding a New Advertising Agency (A)  with developing a new brand. The costs of brand building cannot be underestimated, as anyone at Daewoo would be quick to point out.†6 Not included in the deal to divest the Rover division, notably, was the MINI  brand as well as the manufacturing facility near Oxford, England. â€Å"We knew we had a winner there. Much to the chagrin of the British, we held onto it,† McDowell would say later. Educational material supplied by The Case Centre Copyright encoded A76HM-JUJ9K-PJMN9I Order reference F240566 Designing a New MINI The design and development of the new MINI in the mid-1990s was to some at BMW the embodiment of the larger struggle to integrate the cultures of Rover and BMW. Between 1994 and 1999, there existed two separate MINI design teams—one British and one German. The British-based Rover designers and engineers for much of that time envisioned a revolutionary design of the new MINI. One such MINI concept was unlike, the previous Mini in almost every way but was seen as a contemporary interpretation of Issigonis’ vision of building a small car with maximum passenger space (Exhibit 3). BMW’s designers took a more evolutionary approach in terms of design combined with BMW’s reputation for delivering high-performance, driver-oriented cars. On one night in 1998 at his home in Munich, Frank Stephenson, a BMW designer originally from the U.S., cast himself into the role of Issigonis, who was known for doodling designs of cars on the back of napkins. On a kitchen towel, Stephenson sketched a series of updated versions of the original Mini to reflect modern trends in design and new technology; see Exhibit 3 for a sample sketch.7 In the end, it was Stephenson’s design that would form the basis of the new MINI. The official launch of the MINI was held at the Paris auto show in 2000. During the show, senior BMW AG executives and Stephenson unveiled the new MINI to a rousing ovation. In explaining its design, Stephenson said, â€Å"The MINI Cooper is not a retro design car, but an evolution of the original. It has the genes and many of the characteristics of its predecessor, but is larger, more powerful, more muscular and more exciting than its predecessor.†8 Two production models were to be launched in the U.K. (its historical home) in July 2001: a base model called the MINI One and a more upscale MINI Cooper. A sportier MINI Cooper S was to be launched soon thereafter in the U.K., and both the MINI Cooper and MINI  Cooper S were scheduled for launch in the U.S. as well as other parts of the world in early 2002. Even though the first MINI Coopers were not scheduled to arrive until early 2002, work was well underway in 2000 to establish an organization to support  the launch of the MINI in the United States. MINI USA was established as a division of BMW of North America LLC and would share the same headquarters in Woodcliff Lake, New Jersey, as its parent organization. Jack Pitney was named general manager of MINI USA, a unique distinction for someone with a marketing background as opposed to automotive engineering, manufacturing, finance, or sales. Kerri Martin was appointed MINI’s marketing communications manager. Trudy Hardy was also recruited in 2001 as brand communications manager of MINI, reporting to Martin. The MINI USA headquarters organization was designed to be small (fewer than 25 employees), nimble, and highly creative. From the start, the credo of the organization appeared to be, â€Å"If another car company might take the same approach, MINI ought not.† Martin, for instance, was commonly called by the title â€Å"keeper of brand soul† instead of marketing manager. Work proceeded quickly. By the end of 2000, www.miniusa.com was live and already receiving hits. As with the MINI USA headquarters organization, the existing BMW infrastructure was utilized to create a network of U.S. MINI dealerships. Nevertheless, in a similar fashion, great lengths were taken to establish MINI as its own brand. Approximately 70 dealerships in 31 cities were renovated to add an exclusive MINI showroom under a separate marquee. In total, across all U.S. dealerships, first-year MINI sales objectives were expected to be 20,000 units, an amount Pitney viewed as aggressive but within reach. Base retail sticker prices for the MINI Cooper and MINI Cooper S models were set at about $18,000 and $21,000, respectively, including dealer shipment fees. Additionally, leveraging the history of customizations to the original Mini, each model carried an extensive list of optional equipment and exterior color schemes. For instance, the car roof alone could be painted at the factory with one of more than 10 color schemes, including a black-and-white checkerboard pattern as well as an image of either the Union Jack or American flag. Early expectations were that the MINI Cooper S would capture approximately 80% of sales due to its larger engine and better acceleration. Depending on the amount of optional equipment selected, the total price of a MINI Cooper S could exceed $25,000. Given its design and price range, plans were to position the MINI Cooper as a premium small car—something that MINI saw as a new market niche. This was especially true because the MINI Cooper was smaller and more expensive than some of the better-established compact cars made by Honda, Toyota, and Nissan. Initial MINI marketing materials and media reports from auto shows portrayed the MINI Cooper as a â€Å"fashionable accessory to an affluent, urban-hipster lifestyle.†9 However, early market research also indicated that the target market for the MINI was not limited to a specific demographic group or socioeconomic class but rather was more of a lifestyle choice or mind-set. For example, in surveys conducted before launch, potential MINI buyers in the U.S. described themselves as â€Å"young at heart† or â€Å"free spirited,† a finding that was consistent among both young as well as older age groups. Moreover, the potential MINI buyer appeared to be less concerned by the opinions of others and was independent minded. MINI and BMW AG drew a number of conclusions from this initial research. First, it was decided that further research should closely examine the psychographic factors associated with the purchase of a MINI, since the most fervent of potential MINI buyers seemed to have a common mind-set about the car, which was something that Pitney and others hoped to explore in greater detail. Second, the research confirmed to them that, unlike the original Mini, the new MINI should not be marketed as a car for the masses but instead to a particular segment of car buyers. Third, although it created 9 Suzanne Vranica, â€Å"Cool Mini Cooper Prepares for Relaunch,† The Wall Street Journal, February 14, 2001. Pitney and Martin thus recognized the importance of selecting an advertising agency with experience in nontraditional advertising such as promotional events, online advertising, and direct marketing. None of the large advertising agencies known for television advertising were invited to pitch the account, a decision that many industry observers viewed as bold and against the grain. DaimlerChrysler’s Chrysler Group unit, for example, had recently consolidated its $1.5 billion ad account at Omnicom Group. MINI also decided to base part of the compensation of the ad agency on the collective opinions of its dealers, something that was unique in advertising. Following a fourmonth review, SRR was selected as MINI’s agency of record. A separate firm, Circle.com, was selected to handle their online technology strategy and customer relationship management (CRM) duties. Although MINI would not disclose it publicly, the MINI account was valued at about $25 million per year in term s of total marketing spend, a relatively modest size for an automotive client. Let’s Motor: The U.S. Launch of the MINI The U.S. Launch Campaign (2001–2002) By July 2001, in the eyes of Pitney, Martin, Hardy, and the rest of the MINI team, both the marketing strategy and the creative focus of MINI’s U.S. launch (scheduled for March 2002) were taking shape. Moreover, they felt that the desire to do things differently at MINI had been taken to a whole new level. Most significantly, the marketing team had decided not to use any television or radio advertising as part of MINI’s launch, an industry first for what was essentially an entirely new automobile brand in the U.S. market (it had been almost 40 years since the original Mini was sold in the U.S.). Instead, a phased approach using print and nontraditional marketing techniques was developed. During August and September 2001, MINI’s focus was  to build brand awareness primarily through print advertising in magazines. The tagline for the ads was â€Å"Let’s Motor,† a theme developed by SRR and that would be carried throughout the launch campaign in 2002. The use of the word â€Å"Let’s† at the beginning of each ad was intended to create a feeling of inclusiveness, and the tone of the ads was intended to be friendly and funny. For example, one ad read: â€Å"Let’s not use the size of our vehicle to compensate for other shortcomings. Let’s Motor.† Another began, â€Å"Let’s put away the middle finger.† In addition to initial print advertising in magazines such as Autoweek, SRR developed The Book of Motoring, a 5-inch by 5-inch glossy booklet designed to convey exactly what it meant to be a motorer. â€Å"How is motoring different from driving?† it posed to the reader. â€Å"Physically, they’re the same process . . . the difference is in the mind of the operator . . . when you drive, you go from A to B . . . when you motor you go from A to Z . . . it’s all about living . . . nobody can tell you when you’re motoring . . . you just know.† The book also suggested that motorers pay the toll for the car behind them or feed parking meters if they see a meter maid coming. â€Å"Motorers look out for one another,† the book said. The Book of Motoring could be obtained through BMW dealers or the MINI USA website. In October 2001, in addition to continued print advertising, the SRR and the MINI marketing team designed a series of promotional events and publicity stunts to create additional buzz for the brand. Purchased for use on the MSc International Marketing, at Kings College London, Department of Management. Taught by Douglas West, from 12-Jan-2015 to 27-Mar-2015. Order ref F240566. Usage permitted only within these parameters otherwise contact [emailprotected]  challenges for the manufacturing team in Oxford, England, it was clear that the target market would likely seek to make their MINI unique by adding optional features and color schemes. Finally, it also became apparent that limiting their advertising to traditional media such as television and radio would not be cost effective, since the MINI itself was not a mass-market car  and since its potential buyers seemed less interested in being part of the mainstream. In one example, for a Formula 1 car race in Indianapolis, MINIs were secured to the top of three fullsize sport-utility vehicles and were driven to the city from other parts of the U.S. carrying signs that read, â€Å"What are you doing for fun this weekend?† The same MINI-toting SUVs then toured some 24 U.S. cities (Exhibit 4). When curious onlookers asked about the car, representatives were instructed to give them a card that said â€Å"Coming to America† and directed them to the MINI USA website. Sporting events were also used as venues to promote the car. For instance, a MINI was placed in the stands of an Oakland A’s baseball game and in the Superdome for a Monday Night Football game (Exhibit 5). As part of this promotion, during the game, the announcer did a series of â€Å"callouts† that drew the attention of the fans in attendance to the MINI. As one example, he announced: â€Å"To the gentleman in Section 101, you’ve left your lights on.â €  When the in-stadium camera focused on the MINI in Section 101, its lights flashed and then shut off. This particular promotion also played a role in the firm’s attempts to anthropomorphize the MINI. When the official launch of the MINI Cooper began in March 2002, MINI and SRR continued their grass-roots marketing efforts and print advertising in combination with outdoor advertising using, most notably, billboards, which they felt were underutilized by other car brands. In all 45 markets where the new MINI was to be sold, teaser billboards were posted on the day that showrooms were opened. Instead of displaying the car or its logo, the billboards only included the company’s website, miniusa.com, and a single line of text. One billboard read, â€Å"XXL XL L M S Mini.† Another read, â€Å"The SUV backlash officially starts now.† Then, in April, a new series of  billboards were rolled out that included a photo of a MINI, the MINI logo, and the â€Å"Let’s Motor† tagline. Slogans included, â€Å"Let’s Sip Not Guzzle,† referring to its above-average fuel economy. The outdoor advertising was taken to the extreme in cities like New York, where a skyscraper was wrapped to represent the car’s two-tone paint job and a 29-foot-by-125-foot billboard was erected in Times Square. Though typically considered a traditional medium, print advertising was used by MINI as nontraditionally as possible. In late 2001, for instance, executives from 35 magazines were invited to MINI’s headquarters to brainstorm unique ways to market the new MINI in print. One noteworthy outcome of this session was a proposal to use the margins around news stories to hold advertisements. At launch, the â€Å"cornering ads,† as they were called, were run in six magazines, including Rolling Stone and Motor Trend. The ads said, â€Å"Nothing corners like a MINI† and contained a photo of the Mini Cooper S cornering the one-inch margin of the magazine page. Other aspects of the launch campaign included the following (Exhibit 6): †¢ More than 6 million magazine inserts of an abridged version of The Book of Motoring †¢ A series of MINI-inspired cartoons featured in The New Yorker magazine †¢ Other magazine inserts including an unscented MINI-shaped air freshener and a pullout car game. Another insert allowed readers to customize the car using peel-off stickers; accessories such as wheel covers, blowers, and racks could be placed on a photo of a MINI in the ad. In total, more than 30 million magazine inserts were published in magazines ranging from Car and Driver to Vanity Fair. The MINI organization was very  happy with the creative output of SRR. â€Å"Conceptually, just about every one of their ideas was spot on,† Hardy said. â€Å"Besides the fact that they really ‘got’ the brand, they also made sure that the ideas they showed us were fleshed out and developed. This extra effort on their part really made it easier for us to react to the ideas and to give them meaningful feedback so we could work together to make them come to life.† MINI and SRR planned to explore other advertising media as 2002 wore on, just not television. Rather than use TV advertising, for example, MINI opted to sign a deal with National Cinema Network, a movie theater network, to show 30- and 45-second advertisements on roughly 2,000 screens in five cities. 7 Purchased for use on the MSc International Marketing, at Kings College London, Department of Management. Taught by Douglas West, from 12-Jan-2015 to 27-Mar-2015. Order ref F240566. Usage permitted only within these parameters otherwise contact [emailprotected] By the close of 2002, there were several reasons for MINI and SRR to celebrate. Most obvious were the year-end MINI sales figures, which indicated that 24,590 units had been sold in a little over nine months. At that pace, first-year sales were projected to total over 30,000 units. In addition to the strong sales figures, a consumer survey indicated that brand awareness for the MINI among the carbuying public was 25%. A survey indicated that 75% of MINI buyers had read or heard about the MINI through  public relations and Internet exposure before the official launch advertising actually began in March 2002. The launch campaign also earned both MINI and SRR a significant number of awards, including Adweek magazine’s 2002 Guerilla Marketer of the Year and 2003 Media Plan of the Year honors, the 2002 Kelly Awards Grand Prize for Outstanding Magazine Advertising, and two 2002 Cannes Media Lion prizes. SRR also won the Best of Show Award and an award for innovation in marketing at the annual One Show awards, a prestigious event sponsored by the One Club for Art and Copy in New York. At the same awards ceremony, MINI USA received the Advertiser of the Year Award. Pitney was named one of two Automotive News Marketers of the Year (the other was awarded to Jim McDowell, vice president of marketing for BMW of North America). In January 2003, the MINI was selected as the North American Car of the Year by the same publication. The MINI Cooper and MINI Cooper S were selected as finalists for the Motor Trend Car of the Year as well. The Creative Work Continues (2003–2005) By all accounts, the relationship between MINI and SRR was felt by both sides in 2003 to have been a highly productive collaboration to that point. â€Å"Each day we came to the office thinking that we had one of the best jobs in the world. In a sense, SRR was just part of the family. We’d interact and debate ideas on a weekly, sometimes daily, basis,† Hardy described. â€Å"It was a close working relationship.† Over the next two years, MINI’s strategy of using primarily nontraditional advertising in combination with print and outdoor advertising continued, as did SRR’s ability to develop unique creative material in support of this strategy. One magazine campaign featured punch-out, assembleable versions of the MINI Cooper built on a 1:56 scale. About 4.4 million inserts were created, featuring two cars with different combinations of accessories, and came complete with assembly instructions; both cars became collectors’ items. In another campaign, consumers could pull out MINI cartoon-character decals from magazines. The stickers came eight per sheet and were designed to drive buyers into dealerships for a ninth sticker. Approaches like this one were well received by dealers, including Wayne Youngblood, general  manager of Motor City Mini near Detroit. â€Å"I’m thrilled with it; MINI marketing is quirky, fun, and it delivers customers that match the vehicle perfectly,† he said. â€Å"In my 30 years in the business, there has been no other product that commands as much excitement or attention as MINI.†10 Sales of the MINI Cooper continued to climb (Exhibit 7). In 2004, a MINI Cooper convertible was added to the model lineup. Changes would soon be underway, however. In March 2005, Martin announced that she was leaving MINI to become director of market development for Volkswagen of America, a company known for spending about $500 million annually in North American advertising. Around the same time, Pitney and McDowell made the unique decision to switch jobs as general manager of MINI USA and vice president of marketing for BMW of North America. But the ultimate surprise was SRR’s resignation of the MINI account in order to become the agency of record Purchased for use on the MSc International Marketing, at Kings College London, Department of Management. Taught by Douglas West, from 12-Jan-2015 to 27-Mar-2015. Order ref F240566. Usage permitted only within these parameters otherwise contact [emailprotected] for Volkswagen. By then, Hardy had assumed Martin’s duties as head of marketing, and one of her first challenges was starting over and finding a new advertising agency, which would not be easy given the unique relationship that MINI enjoyed with SRR. Advertising Agencies With each passing year of technological advancements, it was apparent to MINI and others that the foundations of any advertising firm—creativity and the ability to deliver creative content in a variety of media—were becoming less and less the exclusive domain of bigger advertising firms with extensive production staffs. Consequently, it was possible for a one- or two-person shop to perform the same creative services as a large, multinational advertising conglomerate with billions in revenues such as Omnicom, WPP, Interpublic Group (IPG), and Publicis. Advertising firms in 2005 could be categorized into either of these two groups, but a third group also existed. The â€Å"independents,† as they were called, were privately owned firms with anywhere from about 10 to 300 employees. As was the case with SRR, oftentimes these firms were started by young, entrepreneurial advertising professionals looking for creative freedom or autonomy following stints at one or more o f the publicly held multinational firms. Seen by some to be a competitive response to the growth of the independents, consolidation was a significant theme in the advertising industry during much of the 1990s and early twenty-first century. Over this period, the major holding companies appeared intent on expanding market share in order to gain economies of scale, diversifying their revenue streams, and serving clients as a one-stop shop while growing into large, multinational players. In 1993, for example, the top three agency holding companies captured a 36% share of the market. By 2003, this figure had increased to 50%.11 The increase in market share was largely achieved through acquisitions of independents and smaller holding companies, with the bulk of these acquisitions occurring from 1996–2001. One holding company, IPG, acquired 240 companies during that period. Another significant industry theme was the shift in agency compensation over the past decade from commissions to fee-based compensation. Traditionally, advertising organizations had been paid at a set percentage of an advertising budget for the creative work on an account; this percentage was  typically in the 12%–15% range but could be as high as 20%. A major criticism of this compensation system was that it did not align the agency’s pay with the success of a particular campaign or with the amount of work required to create the campaign. The fee-based system (or FTE model) charged production fees and employee hours along with a standard profit margin (e.g., 20%) for the advertising firm. In 2005, it was estimated that 80% of all advertising clients had moved away from commission-based compensation structures to enter fixed fees or a combination of fee and incentive compensation.